An instrumental history of the origins of flute types in the Sahel

Abstract

Given that very little information is available on the history of cross flutes in the Sahel, there is still a lot of speculation and hypothetical speculation on the history of the instrument. A morphological study of the present-day instruments and a comparative analysis of historical iconographic data suggest that the cross flute types in the Sahel are related to the cross flute types that survived in Mauritania and are most likely descendants of the cross flute types that appeared in Egypt in the Greco-Roman period or were originally developed there. However, the only evidence for this is the bronze statue from Ashant dating from the 18th and 19th centuries, because the only evidence of the original tubular flute is the beeswax projection on either side of the cross flute opening. The instrument type may have been preserved by the Berber aborigines in the north-western region and from there its use may have spread southwards, or, as its name suggests, by the Fulbe people in West Africa. The blowing technique, which combines the human singing voice with the notes blown on the cross flute, may also explain the cross flute's unique blowing design. This blowing technique has survived in non-bellows types and even remains a basic playing technique in Cameroonian overtone cross flutes. There is also the possibility that the fingerings may have been removed from the instrument over time and, as the Benin bronze plaques attest, used in conjunction with horns played with a similar blowing technique. The cross flutes of the Sahel may also have remained in use by the Fulbe because, although they appeared in several countries of West Africa, they were generally in a minority and, because of their endogamous marriage customs, they mixed little with the surrounding peoples. Therefore, although the instrument was adopted by non-Fulbe groups, unlike other instrument types, it never spread more widely and therefore very few records of it survive. As a consequence, until recently, this instrument type was not discussed in the mainstream literature. As their use is also associated with the village musicians of the griot caste, they may have found a place in the world music scene over the last 20-30 years and are therefore becoming more widely known. It has also led to the development of versions with a larger range and an increased number of finger holes, and from the original three finger holes tuned to the diatonic scales E, F, G and A major, to the six finger hole chromatic scale 'B'. A comparative analysis of the historical data also shows that the East African cross flute types are not related to the West African cross flute types because, unlike the West African cross flute types, the East African cross flutes have a different tonal range.